National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
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Immune System
What is the Immune System
Self and Nonself
Structure
Immune Cells and Their Products
Immune Response
Immunity: Natural and Acquired
Disorders
Transplants
Nervous System
Research Frontiers

Immune System

Research Frontiers in Immunology

Monoclonal Antibodies

Antigen is injected into a mouse; antibody-producing plasma cells are created. These cells fuse into a hybridoma from long-lived plasma cells, and monoclonal antibodies are the result.
Monoclonal antibody technology makes it possible to mass produce specific antibodies to order. Credit: NIAID.

Genetic Engineering

Strand of DNA from cytokine producing cell has a gene cut out; meanwhile, a plasmid—a ring of DNA— is cut open from a bacterium. The cytokine geneis spliced into plasmid; hybrid plasmid is put back into a bacterium; and a bacterium makes human cytokines.
Genetic engineering transforms simple organisms into factories for making human proteins. Credit: NIAID.

SCID-hu Mouse

Immature human immune cells are injected into a mouse. Along with immature human immune tissue, these attach to mouse kidneys, creating an immuno-incompetent SCID-hu mouse.
The SCID-hu mouse provides a means of studying the human immune system in action. Credit: NIAID.

The print version is available: Understanding the Immune System: How It Works (PDF). All artwork is by Jeanne Kelly and may not be repurposed.